THE IBERIANS AND THE CELTS

In pre-Roman times, two main groups of tribes inhabitated the peninsula:

-The Iberians lived in the east and south of Spain. They were warriors, herders, farmers, craftsmen, merchants and slaves.

- The Celts  entered Spain from the north, and generally settled in the north and centre of Spain. Their tribes were divided into family clans. They were herders and farmers. They were also expert metalworkers, who made jewellery, weapons and tools.

The Celts mixed with the Iberians to form the Celtiberians.

THE TARTESSIANS

 The kingdom of Tartessus was in southern Spain in the Guadalquivir valley, and was rich in metals such as gold, silver and copper.

The Tartessians were great travellers, expert metalworkers and salt producers. 

EARLY COLONISTS

The PHOENICIANS were traders from Asia. They settled on the south coast. In 1100 B.C. They fouded Gades (now Cadiz), the oldest city in Western Europe. They became important trading partners of the Tartessians.

The GREEKS settled on the Mediterranean coast.They came to trade ceramic objects for metals. They founded the cities of Denia and Ampurias.

The CARTHAGINIANS came from North Africa to trade metals and cloth. They also settled on the Mediterranean coast and founded the city of Cartagena.

These colonising civilisations lived and traded with the Celtiberians for centuries. They left cultural legacies, such as the alphabet and metal coins.  

THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD

About a million years ago, Spain was inhabitated by hominids, or early human beings. Modern people appeared in Spain about 35.000 years ago.

They were nomads, and moved from place to place.

They lived in caves or huts. They obtained their food by hunting, fishing and gathering wild plants.

People lived in family groups, called clans.They lived short lives, and many babies died at birth.

THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD

Later, the population of the peninsula and the Balearic Islands became sedentary.They built the first settlements.

People lived in tribes,which were larger than clans. Each tribe member had a specific job, such as cultivating the land, looking after the animals or making tools and weapons.

THE METAL AGES

About six thousand years ago, people learned to use metals. First, they used copper and, later, bronze and iron, which were more resistant.

Settlements became villages, which were surrounded by walls for protection.

Every village was run by a chieftain.

PREHISTORIC HERITAGE

Prehistoric people were the first to:

- Use fires to cook their food and protect themselves from the cold.

- Make clay pots.

- Use animal hair and looms to make cloth.

- Create art forms, such as cave paintings.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF EUROPE

The Great European Plain: this extends from the Pyrenees to the Ural Mountains in Russia.

Mountains: most of the mountain chains, such as the Alps and the Balkans, are in the south of Europe, near the Mediterranean Sea.

Compact groups of mountains: these are called plateaus or massifs.

Peninsulas: the Scandinavian, Iberian and Italian peninsulas are the largest in Europe.

Islands: Iceland, The British Isles, Sardinia, Sicily and Crete are the largest islands in Europe.

COASTS AND RIVERS

Europe has coastlines on the Artic Ocean, The North Sea and the Baltic Sea in the north; on the Caspian Sea in the south-east; on the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea in the south; and on the Atlantic Ocean in the west.

Many rivers cross the European continent. Some of them are over 1.000 Km long. The longest river is the Volga, which is over 3.500 Km long.

EUROPE AND ITS POPULATION

Europe is a prosperous, developed continent. It is the third most populated continent after Asia and Africa.

About 730 million people, around 11% of the world´s population, live in Europe.

However, the population density varies greatly from one region to another.

Most europeans live in cities. The largest cities are London, Moscow and St. Petersburg.

COUNTRIES

There are forty-eight independent nations in Europe. Some countries, such as Macedonia and Belarus, became independent recently.

PEOPLE AND DIVERSITY

Europe is home to many different indigenous races and also to many immigrants from Latin America, India, Africa and other places. Consequently, there is a great diversity of origins, religious beliefs, cultural traditions and languages.

THE EUROPEAN UNION

The European Union (EU) is a confederation of countries. A confederation is a group of countries united for a common purpose.

The EU´s purpose is to promote political and economic union in a space without political frontiers.

The first member states were France, Italy, Germany, Holland, Belgium and Luxembourg. Today there are twenty-seven countries and 490 million citizens in the EU.

FACTS

At first, the European Union concentrated on economic matters. All member states now share legislation on agriculture, industry and transport.

- The euro is the official currency in most EU countries.

- The citizens of member states can live and work in any other member state.

- In recent years, the European Union has worked on political policies. The EU is developing its own defence and justice systems.

EUROPEAN UNION INSTITUTIONS

Most EU institutions are bassed in Brussels (Belgium), Strasbourg (France) and in the city of Luxembourg.

The main institutions are:

- The Council of the European Union.

- The European Parliament.

- The European Commission.

- The Court of Justice.

MACHINES

Machines are devices which use the action of a force or convert one type of energy into another.For example, a bicycle is a machine which transforms human energy into mechanical energy.

Machines save us time and physical effort.

TYPES OF MACHINES

Some machines, such as pulleys, are very simple because they have very few components. Other machines, such as computers, are complex because they have many components. 

Machines can be classified depending on the energy source. There are machines which work with:

- Human energy, such as a bicycle or a hammer.
- Water or wind, such as a watermill or a windmill.
- Fuel, such as a car or a gas stove.
- Electricity, such as a washing machine or a mobile phone.

MACHINES WITH PRODUCE MOVEMENT

Many machines produce movement, such as escalators, cars or food blenders. These machines have a motor or an engine. The motor converts fuel or electrical energy into movement.

THERMAL MACHINES

Thermal machines, such as heaters and air conditioners, produce heat or cold.

INFORMATION-PROCESSING MACHINES

Information-processing machines are used for communication and calculations. For example, we can communicate with others using mobile phones, and we can make calculations on computers.