THE IBERIANS AND THE CELTS

In pre-Roman times, two main groups of tribes inhabitated the peninsula:

-The Iberians lived in the east and south of Spain. They were warriors, herders, farmers, craftsmen, merchants and slaves.

- The Celts  entered Spain from the north, and generally settled in the north and centre of Spain. Their tribes were divided into family clans. They were herders and farmers. They were also expert metalworkers, who made jewellery, weapons and tools.

The Celts mixed with the Iberians to form the Celtiberians.

THE TARTESSIANS

 The kingdom of Tartessus was in southern Spain in the Guadalquivir valley, and was rich in metals such as gold, silver and copper.

The Tartessians were great travellers, expert metalworkers and salt producers. 

EARLY COLONISTS

The PHOENICIANS were traders from Asia. They settled on the south coast. In 1100 B.C. They fouded Gades (now Cadiz), the oldest city in Western Europe. They became important trading partners of the Tartessians.

The GREEKS settled on the Mediterranean coast.They came to trade ceramic objects for metals. They founded the cities of Denia and Ampurias.

The CARTHAGINIANS came from North Africa to trade metals and cloth. They also settled on the Mediterranean coast and founded the city of Cartagena.

These colonising civilisations lived and traded with the Celtiberians for centuries. They left cultural legacies, such as the alphabet and metal coins.  

THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD

About a million years ago, Spain was inhabitated by hominids, or early human beings. Modern people appeared in Spain about 35.000 years ago.

They were nomads, and moved from place to place.

They lived in caves or huts. They obtained their food by hunting, fishing and gathering wild plants.

People lived in family groups, called clans.They lived short lives, and many babies died at birth.

THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD

Later, the population of the peninsula and the Balearic Islands became sedentary.They built the first settlements.

People lived in tribes,which were larger than clans. Each tribe member had a specific job, such as cultivating the land, looking after the animals or making tools and weapons.

THE METAL AGES

About six thousand years ago, people learned to use metals. First, they used copper and, later, bronze and iron, which were more resistant.

Settlements became villages, which were surrounded by walls for protection.

Every village was run by a chieftain.

PREHISTORIC HERITAGE

Prehistoric people were the first to:

- Use fires to cook their food and protect themselves from the cold.

- Make clay pots.

- Use animal hair and looms to make cloth.

- Create art forms, such as cave paintings.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF EUROPE

The Great European Plain: this extends from the Pyrenees to the Ural Mountains in Russia.

Mountains: most of the mountain chains, such as the Alps and the Balkans, are in the south of Europe, near the Mediterranean Sea.

Compact groups of mountains: these are called plateaus or massifs.

Peninsulas: the Scandinavian, Iberian and Italian peninsulas are the largest in Europe.

Islands: Iceland, The British Isles, Sardinia, Sicily and Crete are the largest islands in Europe.

COASTS AND RIVERS

Europe has coastlines on the Artic Ocean, The North Sea and the Baltic Sea in the north; on the Caspian Sea in the south-east; on the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea in the south; and on the Atlantic Ocean in the west.

Many rivers cross the European continent. Some of them are over 1.000 Km long. The longest river is the Volga, which is over 3.500 Km long.

EUROPE AND ITS POPULATION

Europe is a prosperous, developed continent. It is the third most populated continent after Asia and Africa.

About 730 million people, around 11% of the world´s population, live in Europe.

However, the population density varies greatly from one region to another.

Most europeans live in cities. The largest cities are London, Moscow and St. Petersburg.

COUNTRIES

There are forty-eight independent nations in Europe. Some countries, such as Macedonia and Belarus, became independent recently.

PEOPLE AND DIVERSITY

Europe is home to many different indigenous races and also to many immigrants from Latin America, India, Africa and other places. Consequently, there is a great diversity of origins, religious beliefs, cultural traditions and languages.

THE EUROPEAN UNION

The European Union (EU) is a confederation of countries. A confederation is a group of countries united for a common purpose.

The EU´s purpose is to promote political and economic union in a space without political frontiers.

The first member states were France, Italy, Germany, Holland, Belgium and Luxembourg. Today there are twenty-seven countries and 490 million citizens in the EU.

FACTS

At first, the European Union concentrated on economic matters. All member states now share legislation on agriculture, industry and transport.

- The euro is the official currency in most EU countries.

- The citizens of member states can live and work in any other member state.

- In recent years, the European Union has worked on political policies. The EU is developing its own defence and justice systems.

EUROPEAN UNION INSTITUTIONS

Most EU institutions are bassed in Brussels (Belgium), Strasbourg (France) and in the city of Luxembourg.

The main institutions are:

- The Council of the European Union.

- The European Parliament.

- The European Commission.

- The Court of Justice.

MACHINES

Machines are devices which use the action of a force or convert one type of energy into another.For example, a bicycle is a machine which transforms human energy into mechanical energy.

Machines save us time and physical effort.

TYPES OF MACHINES

Some machines, such as pulleys, are very simple because they have very few components. Other machines, such as computers, are complex because they have many components. 

Machines can be classified depending on the energy source. There are machines which work with:

- Human energy, such as a bicycle or a hammer.
- Water or wind, such as a watermill or a windmill.
- Fuel, such as a car or a gas stove.
- Electricity, such as a washing machine or a mobile phone.

MACHINES WITH PRODUCE MOVEMENT

Many machines produce movement, such as escalators, cars or food blenders. These machines have a motor or an engine. The motor converts fuel or electrical energy into movement.

THERMAL MACHINES

Thermal machines, such as heaters and air conditioners, produce heat or cold.

INFORMATION-PROCESSING MACHINES

Information-processing machines are used for communication and calculations. For example, we can communicate with others using mobile phones, and we can make calculations on computers.

ACTIVITY " MACHINES"

READ THESE SENTENCES AND CORRECT THE WRONG INFORMATION.

1. A bicycle is a machine which transforms mechanical energy into human energy.
2. Pulleys have many components.
3. A hammer works with wind energy.
4. A washing machine works with fuel.
5. Computers are simple machines.

CASING AND STRUCTURE

The casing is the outer part of a machine. It protects the machine from dust, moisture and damage. The structure is the frame of the machine, and it supports the weight.

OPERATING PARTS AND MECHANISMS

The operating parts are the components of a machine, such as wheels, axles, springs and chains.

An mechanism is a group of operating parts which work together to perform a specific task. For example, on a bicycle, the gears and chain form a mechanism.

ENGINES AND MOTORS

An engine or a motor is the part of a machine which produces movement.

- Combustion engines use chemical energy from fuel. Cars and aeroplanes have combustion engines.

- Electric motors use electrical energy. Electric machines, such as trains or cameras, have electric motors.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND ELECTRONICS

Machines which use an electrical current have electrical circuits.

- Electronic circuits are electrical circuits with very small components.

- Microchips, the smallest circuits, have tiny electronic circuits. Microchips are used in digital cameras, telephones and many other electronic devices.

ACTIVITY "INSIDE A MACHINE"

READ THESE DEFINITIONS AND WRITE THE CORRESPONDING WORDS

1. The outer part of a machine.
2. The frame of the machine which supports the weight.
3. The components of a machine, for example, wheels, axles,etc.
4. A group of operating parts which act together to perform a specific task.
5. Engines which use chemical energy from fuel.
6. Components which have tiny electronic circuits and are used in digital cameras, telephones, etc.

SOUND

SOUND is a form of mechanical energy produced by the vibration of an object, such as a string on a guitar, a drum or even our vocal cords.

Sound travels in waves through solids, liquids and gases. It travels through air at 340 metres per second, a speed much slower than the speed of light.

REFLECTION OF SOUND

An echo is the reflection of sound from the surface of an obstacle. Sound takes time to bounce off the obstacle and return to our ears, so we hear both the original sound and the echo.

When the original sound is reflected from walls and objects in an enclosed space, we hear a series of echoes. This is called reverberation. Cathedrals, gymnasiums and indoor swimming pools are good places to hear reverberation.

QUALITIES OF SOUND

INTENSITY: intensity depends upon the amplitude of the sound wave. If the sound is loud, the amplitude is large. If the sound is soft; the amplitude is small.

PITCH: the pitch of a sound depends on the frequency of its sound waves. Pitch enables us to differentiate between the high notes and the low notes made by a musical instrument.

TONE: tone enables us to identify the source of a sound with the same frequency and intensity. For example, a guitar does not sound like a saxophone. That is because every musical instrument has a unique tone. Every person´s voice is different because every voice has a unique tone. 

ACTIVITY SOUND

COMPLETE THESE SENTENCES WITH THE CORRECT WORD

echoes/ waves/ mechanical/ reflection/ vibration/ slower/ air

1. Sound is a form of ...... energy.
2. Sound is produced by the ......... of an object.
3. Sound travels in ........
4. Sound travels through ....... at 340 metres per second.
5. Sound travels much ......than light.
6. An echo is the .........of sound.
7. Reverbration is a series of ......

LIGHT

LIGHT is a form of energy which enables us to see. Light moves very rapidly, at 300,000 km per second. It travels in all directions, but always in a straight line. Thus, if light meets an obstacle, the obstacle blocks it, and a shadow is formed.

OBJECTS AND LIGHT

- Transparent objects or substances, such as glass and air, allow light to pass.

- Translucent objects, such as a thin piece of paper, allow some light to pass.

- Opaque objects, such as a book or a pencil, absorb or reflect light.

REFLECTION

When light hits an opaque object, it is reflected and changes direction. This is called reflection. Reflected light enables us to see things. We can see the Moon when it reflects light from the Sun.

LIGHT AND COLOURS

WHITE LIGHT is made up of infinite colours. In a rainbow, white light is separated into different colours.

The colour of an object is the colour of the light which the object reflects. For example, a blue object absorbs every colour of light except blue and reflects blue light into our eyes.

REFRACTION

When light passes through one transparent medium to another, it bends and changes direction. This is called refraction. Lenses refract light. Lenses can be convex or concave.

ACTIVITY " LIGHT"

ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS

1. How fast does light travel?
2. What makes a shadow form?
3. What words describe objects which absorb or reflect light / allow some light to pass/ allow light to pass?
4. What is reflection?
5. What happens in a rainbow?

ENERGY

Energy is the ability to do work.

Moving, lifting, heating and lighting are examples of work.

We use energy to light our cities, heat our homes, move our cars, cook our food, play our music and give us pictures on television.

Energy from the Sun gives us light and heat.

When we eat, our bodies transform the energy stored in our food into energy to do work.

Everything we do is connected with energy in one form or another.

ENERGY SOURCES

There are two types of energy sources:

- Non-renewable energy sources cannot be replenished in a short period of time. These energy sources are fossil fuels, such as oil, coal and natural gas, and uranium.

- Renewable sources of energy can be replenished naturally in a short period of time. Traditional examples of these energy sources are sunlight, wind and water. There are some newer sources of renewable energy, such as biomass, which uses plants and other biological matter to produce energy.

ACTIVITY "ENERGY"

CLASSIFY THE FOLLOWING WORDS INTO TWO GROUPS: RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES.

Biomass, natural gas, sunlight, coal, oil, water, uranium, wind, fossil fuels.

TYPES OF ENERGY

- Electrical energy is the energy produced by the flow of electrical charge, such as the electricity used by washing machines and computers.

- Chemical energy is the energy produced by fossil fuels and biomass. In our bodies, it is the energy produced by the food we eat.

- Mechanical energy is the energy produced by things in motion, such as the wind.

- Thermal energy is the energy released as heat, from a stove, for example.

- Nuclear energy is the energy found in elements such as uranium and plutonium.

- Light energy is the energy found in light, such as the energy from the Sun.

ENERGY CONVERSION

One type of energy can be converted into another type of energy.

- In a fan, electrical energy is transformed into mechanical energy.

- At a nuclear power station, nuclear energy is transformed into electrical energy.

- In a light bulb, electrical energy is converted into light energy and thermal energy.

- In a car engine, chemical energy is trnsformed twice: into thermal energy ( the engine becomes warm) and into mechanical energy ( the car moves).

ACTIVITY " TYPES OF ENERGY"

MATCH THE TWO HALVES OF EACH SENTENCE

1. In a fan, electrical energy is
2. At a nuclear power statation, nuclear energy is
3. In a light bulb, electrical energy is
4. In a car engine, chemical energy is

a. transformed into thermal energy and mechanical energy.
b. transformed into mechanical energy.
c. transformed into electrical energy.
d. converted into light energy and thermal energy.

MAGNETS

A magnet is an object which can attract objects made of iron or mixtures of iron, such as steel. This attraction is called magnetism.

Magnets can be natural, such as the mineral magnetite, or artificial, such as magnets manufactured from metal.

Magnets have two poles: north and south. When the opposite poles of two magnets are placed together, the magnets attract each other. If the same poles are placed together, the magnets repel each other.

MAGNETIC FIELDS

Magnets create magnetic fields. They are the space around a magnet where materials, such as iron filings, are affected by magnetic forces.

ELECTROMAGNETS

An electromagnet is a conducting wire wrapped around a piece of iron, called a coil, which acts as a magnet when electrical current flows through it.

THE USES OF MAGNETS

Magnets are used in electric motors and generators for telephones, lights, televisors, computers and more.

- Magnetic recording media are used in audio cassettes, floppy disks and hard disks to store information in a very small space.

- Magnetic strips store information on credit cards.

- Electromagnets are used in televisions, computer monitors, loudspeakers and microphones.

ACTIVITY " MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM"

READ THE DEFINITIONS AND WRITE THE CORRESPONDING WORDS

1. An object which can attract other objects made of iron or mixtures of iron is called a .........
2. When the opposite poles of two magnets are placed together they..........
3. When the same poles of two magnets are placed together they.......
4. The area around a magnet affected by magnetic forces is called a ..............
5. A conducting wire wrapped around a piece of iron which acts as a magnet when an electrical current flows through the wire is called an .............

ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

Electricity is produced at power stations or power plants.

Water, steam or wind moves a turbine connected to a generator. When the turbine rotates, the generator converts mechanical energy into electricity, using a magnetic field and a conductor.

Power stations use different energy sources to move the turbine. Some use non-renewable energies, such as coal, while others use renewable energies, such as wind.

ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION

The electricity generated at a power station is transmitted through conducting wires to substations near populated areas. It is transmitted through tall towers and special electrical power lines called high-tension power transmission lines.

ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION

Power lines distribute electricity to homes, offices and industries. It is used by different appliances to produce:

- Heat: for example, radiators.
- Movement: for example, washing machines.
- Light: for example, computers.
- Sound: for example, doorbells.

ACTIVITY " ELECTRICITY"

COMPREHENSION: Answer these questions:

1. What moves a turbine?
2. What is the turbine connected to?
3. How do they work?
4. Where are substations located?
5. What is another name for the electrical power lines which transmit the electricity generated at a power station to substations?

ELECTRICAL CHARGES

There are two types of electrical charge: positive and negative. Negative charges can move from one place or object to another.

- If an object has more positive than negative charges, it is positively charged.

- If an object has more negative than positive charges, it is negatively charged.

- If an object has the same number of positive and negative charges, it is neutral.

Objects with opposite charges attract each other, and objects with the same charges repel each other.

If we rub an object with something made from a different material, we make electrical charges move, creating static electricity.

For example, if you rub a balloon onto your hair, negative charges move from your hair onto the balloon.Your hair becomes positively charged and the balloon becomes negatively charged. You can stick the balloon to your hair, and your hair stands on end.

ACTIVITY " ELECTRICITY"

Complete the sentences with the correct words.

1. There are ......... types of electrical charges.
2. Negative charges can............. from one place or object to another.
3. An object with the same number of positive and negative charges is..............
4. Objects with opposite charges................each other.
5. Objects with the same charges..................each other.

ELECTRICAL CURRENT

Electrical current is the flow of electrical charges. It transmits energy called electricity.

Electrical current flows differently, depending on the type of material through it flows.

- Conductors : electrical current flows easily through conductors. Most metals are conductors.

- Insulators: electrical current does not flow easily through insulators, such as air, glass, plastic, wood and rubber.

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

An electric circuit consists of different components connected to each other to allow the flow of an electrical current.

The four basic components of an electric circuit are:

- A generator, which is the source of electricity, such as an electrical plant or a battery.

- An electrical component, such as a light bulb or a motor.

- Conducting wires.

- A switch to control the flow of electrical current. A switch in the on position closes the circuit and allows the flow of electrical current. A switch in the off position opens the circuit and breaks the flow of electrical current.

ACTIVITY "ELECTRICAL CURRENT"

TRUE OR FALSE? Decide if the sentences are true or false, and correct them if neccesary.

1. Electrical current flows easily through conductors.
2. Rubber is a conductor.
3. Electrical current does not flow easily through insulators.
4. Most metals are insulators.
5. An electric circuit has four basic components.
6. When the switch is on, it opens the electric circuit.