SEX CELLS

Male and female sex cells are necessary for reproduction.

Egg cells are the female sex cells. They are large and round. From puberty on, one egg matures and passes through a Fallopian tube approximately every twenty-eight days.

In the egg cell is not fertilised, it leaves the body through the vagina. Minor bleeding occurs, called menstruation or a period.

Sperm are the male sex cells. They are very small. From the beginning of puberty on, about 200 million of these aare produced every day.

FERTILISATION

FERTILISATION occurs when an egg cell and a sperm unite in one of the Fallopian tubes or in the uterus.

This first cell of the new human being has all the DNA of the two parents and is called a zygote. It divides numerous times and forms an embryo. Then the embryo is implanted in the wall of the uterus.

EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT

When the embryo is implanted in the wall of the uterus, it is ready to develop into a baby. The embryo needs food and oxygen to grow. It also needs protection.

First, it is protected by a sac called amnion, which fills with liquid.

Then, the placenta forms. It gives the embryo nutrients and oxygen from the mother.

The embryo is connected to the placenta by the umbilical cord.


After about eight weeks, when the main structures and organs have formed, the embryo is called a foetus.

PREGNANCY

PREGNANCY  is the period from the moment of fertilisation until the birth of the baby. This normally lasts about nine months. The mother´s body experiences many changes during this period.

CHOOSE THE CORRECT ALTERNATIVE IN EACH OF THESE SENTENCES

1. One egg cell matures and passes through the Fallopian tubes every two weeks/ twenty-eight days.
2. If the egg is / is not fertilised, it leaves the body through the vagina.
3. Two hundred million sperm are produced every day / month from the beginning of puberty.
4. A zygote / embryo is the fisrt cell of the new human being.
5. The zygote / embryo is implanted in the wall of the uterus.

STAGES OF LABOUR

The process of giving birth is called labour.


The involuntary muscles produce contractions in the uterus. The sac containing the foetus breaks. The liquid around the foetus is expelled.

There are three stages of labour:

-Dilation: the opening of the vagina dilates so that the baby can come out.

-Birth: the baby leaves the mother´s body.

-Afterbirth: the placenta is expelled.

If labour is difficult or dangerous for the mother or the baby, doctors perform a caesarean section to take the baby from the mother´s uterus.

NEWBORN BABIES

When a baby is born, the umbilical cord is cut. The mark left is called a belly button.


Newborn babies are about fifty centimetres long and weigh about three kilograms.

Babies born before term are called premature. Premature babies are kept in incubators, where they can develop and grow stronger.

LACTATION

Lactation is the period when babies get their nourishment from their mother´ s milk. If a mother cannot produce milk, infant formula is used. It is made from modified cow´s milk or soya milk. Breast milk is best, but formula provides many necessary nutrients.

HUMAN SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS

There are two types of human sexual characteristics:

-Primary sexual characteristics enable human beings to reproduce. We have these when we are born.

-Secondary sexual characteristics differentiate men and women. They develop at puberty.

  - Men have lower voices, more developed muscles and a lot of facial and body hair.

  - Women have higher voices, breasts, wider hips and little body hair.

PUBERTY

Puberty occurs when the reproductive system matures, and secondary sexual characteristics appear.

Puberty starts when the pituitary gland sends hormones to the genital organs.

As a result of this, changes occur in boys and girls and their secondary sexual characteristics develop.

- Girls reach puberty between the ages of 11 and 14.

- Boys reach puberty between the ages of 13 and 15.

ACTIVITY "SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS"

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

1. When do secondary sexual characteristics develop?

2. Do men or women have more facial and body hair?

3. What gland sends hormones to the genital organs?

4. Which sexual characteristics do we have when we are born?

THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Both the male and female reproductive systems consist of internal and external genital organs.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female internal genital organs are:

- The ovaries:they produce the eggs necessary for reproduction.

- The Fallopian tubes: they connect the ovaries to the uterus.

-The uterus:is the organ where the baby develops during the pregnancy.

-The vagina: it is a channel which goes from the uterus to the outside of the body.

The female external genital organs have a collective name- the vulva.

The vulva includes creases of skin called labia, the clitoris, and the openings to the vagina and the urethra.

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male internal genital organs are:

- Two testicles or testes: They produce the sperm cells necessary for reproduction.

- The vas deferens: sperm travels through this tube to the uretha.

- The urethra: sperm travels through this passage to the outside of the body.

- The semical vesicles and the prostate gland: they produce a liquid to feed and transport sperm.

The male external genital organs are:

- The scrotum: it is a bag of skin which contains the testicles.

- The penis: the urethra passes through this organ.

ACTIVITY " THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM"

READ THE DEFINITIONS AND WRITE THE CORRESPONDING WORDS

1. These organs produce sperm cells.

2. This is the bag of skin which contains the testicles.

3. This is the organ where the baby develops during pregnancy.

4. These connect the ovaries to the uterus.

5. These organs produce the female eggs necessary for reproduction.

A REFLEX MOVEMENT CONTROLLED BY THE SPINAL CORD

- First, the skin receives information.

- Next, the nerves transmit the information to the spinal cord.

- Then, the spinal cord receives the information and sends a command.

- After that, nerves transmit the command to the arm muscles.

- Finally, the muscles contract and the arm moves away.

INTERNAL COORDINATION

INTERNAL PROCESSES

The nervous system controls and coordinates al the body´s internal processes, such as the beating of the heart and the digestion of food.

To do this, it controls involuntary muscles and the endocrine system.

INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES

Involuntary muscles work automatically. We cannot control them with our decisions.

The body needs involuntary muscles in order to function correctly.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is responsible for functions such as growth and reproduction.

It consist of endocrine glands, which secrete substances called hormones into the bloodstream.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS

The principal glands in the endocrine system are:

-Thyroid gland: it produces the hormone thyroxin, which enables the body to absorb nutrients.

-Pancreas:it produces insulin, which controls the amount of sugar in the bloodstream.

-Ovaries (female) and testes (male): they produce sex hormones, which are responsible for reproduction.

-Pituitary gland:it coordinates other endocrine glands and also produces growth hormone.

ACTIVITY "INTERNAL COORDINATION"

MATCH THE TWO HALVES OF EACH SENTENCE

1.The endocrine system                                 a.produces insulin.

2.The thyroid gland                                       b.produces the growth hormone.

3.Thyroxin enables the body                          c.is responsible for growth and reproduction.

4.The pancreas                                             d. to absorb nutrients.

5.Insulin controls                                           e.produces thyroxin.

6.The pituitary gland                                      f.the amount of sugar in the bloodstreeam.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular system consists of all the muscles in the body.

The muscular system:

- Enables the body to move.
- Gives the body its shape.
- Protects organs, such as the liver.

Muscles can change in length:

- When they contract, they become shorter and thicker.

- When they relax, they return to their original length and thickness.

Tissues called tendons connect muscles to bones.

MOVEMENT

Body movement occurs at movable joints.Two muscles are used in each movement.

These muscles are called antagonistics because they perform opposite actions. When one muscle contracts, the other relaxes.

For example, arms bend at the elbow with a flexing movement. They straighten with an extending movement.

ACTIVITY " THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM"

TRUE OR FALSE? DECIDE IF THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS ARE TRUE OR FALSE. IF THEY ARE FALSE, CORRECT THEM.

1. When muscles contract, they become longer.
2. When muscles relax, they return to their original length and thickness.
3. Tendons connect the bones of a joint.
4. Antagonistic muscles perform the same actions.
5. Arms bend at the elbow with a flexing movement.

REFLEX AND INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS

There are two types of movements:

- Reflex movements: these are involuntary movements in response to external stimuli.

- Voluntary movements: these movements are the result of decisions.

NEURONS

NEURONS are the principal cells of the nervous system. They receive and transmit information. They are grouped together to form nerves.

PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. This system receives information, interprets it, and decides on a response.

The brain has three parts:

- The cerebrum controls voluntary movements.

- The cerebellum coordinates movements and maintains balanced.

- The brain stem regulates internal organs.

The spinal cord controls reflex movements.

The peripherial nervous system consists of nerves. It transmits information from the sense organs to the central nervous system and from the central nervous system to other organs.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS

The nervous system sends and receives information.

It coordinates the functions of internal organs.

It also coordinates systems like the digestive system.

ACTIVITY " THE NERVOUS SYSTEM"

READ THE FOLLOWING DEFINITIONS AND WRITE THE CORRESPONDING WORDS:

1. This part of the brain controls voluntary movements.
2. This part of the brain coordinates movements and maintains balance.
3. This part of the brain regulates internal organs.
4. These are the principal cells of the nervous system.
5. These are involuntary movements in response to external stimuli.

THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

The musculoskeletal system consist of the skeleton and the muscular system. Both systems work together to make the body move.

THE SKELETON

The skeleton consist of all the bones in the body.

It supports the body, and enables us to move. It protects delicate organs, such as the heart, lungs and brain.

JOINTS

Joints are the places where two bones meet.
There are:

- Fixed joints, such as the skull.

-Movable joints, such as the knee or elbow.

-Gliding joints, such as between vertebrae.

The ends of the bones are covered with flexible tissue called cartilage. The bones of a joint are connected by strong elastic tissues called ligaments.

ACTIVITY "THE SKELETON"

WRITE THE WORDS OF EACH SENTENCE IN THE CORRECT ORDER TO MAKE SENSE

1. body / supports / the / the / skeleton.

2. meet / places / bones / two / joints / where / are / the.

3. ends / the / of / cartilage / covers / bones / the.

4. flexible / cartilage / tissue / is.

5. elastic / strong / ligaments / are / tissue.

ESSENTIAL LANGUAGE

DESCRIBING A PROCESS

First, food is chewed in the mouth, and mixed with saliva.

Then, this food moves down the pharynx and passes into the stomach.

Next, it mixes with gastric juices in the stomach.

Finally, the chyme leaves the stomach and reaches the small intestine.

ACTIVITY EXCRETORY SYSTEM

ORDER THE STEPS IN THE EXCRETION PROCESS

----- The kidneys filter the blood.
----- Urine is expelled through the urethra.
----- Urine is carried by the ureters.
----- Blood goes through the kidneys.
----- Urine is formed.
----- Urine is stored in the bladder.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Circulation is the movement of blood through the circulatory system. Circulation carries nutrients and oxygen to all parts of the body, and collects waste substances, which can be dangerous.

Our heart works like a pump, and moves blood through the body. It never stops beating.

Blood vessels are tubes which transport blood through the circulatory system. There are three kinds: arteries, veins and capillaries.

- Arteries are the blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart.

- Veins are the blood vessels which carry blood into the heart.

- Capillaries are tiny blood vessels which connect arteries to veins. They reach every part of your body.

BLOOD CIRCULATION

There are two circulatory systems:

Pulmonary circulation is the movement of blood between the heart and the lungs. Blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary arteries and goes to the lungs. In the lungs, the blood absorbs oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. The blood then returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins.

Systemic circulation is the movement of blood to the rest of the body. Blood with oxygen from the lungs leaves the heart through the aorta. It distributes nutritive substances and oxygen throughout the body. Finally, it returns to the heart through the vena cava.

Activity "The Circulatory System"

CHOOSE THE CORRECT ALTERNATIVE.

 1.Digestion / circulation is the movement of blood through the circulatory system.
 2.Our heart / stomach works like a pump.
 3.It never stops eating / beating.
 4.There are three kinds of food / blood vessels.
 5.Arteries carry blood into / away from the heart.
 6.Veins carry blood away from / into the heart.
 7. Capillaries connect arteries to veins. They reach / dont´t reach every part of our body.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

In addition to nutrients, we need oxygen to live. We breathe to obtain oxygen from the air.

This function is carried out by the respiratory system. It is made up of the nose, air passageways (the tubes which carry air in and out of the body), and  the lungs.

- First, the air enters through the nose. Then it passes through the pharynx, the larynx, and the trachea. Next, it goes through the two main bronchi and into each lung. In the lungs, the bronchi divide into smaller bronchioles. There are tiny sacs of air at the end of the bronchioles called alveoli.

- In the alveoli, oxygen from the air passes into the blood. The blood releases carbon dioxide which pases into the alveoli. It is toxic, and the body expels it.

Two movements, inhalation and exhalation, cause the air to circulate.
When we inhale, our lungs fill with air.
When we exhale, air leaves the lungs.

THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Our body produces waste substances which go into the blood, and can be dangerous. Excretion is the elimination of these waste substances.

- The kidneys are the organs of the excretory system. These two organs filter the blood and produce urine. This is made up of water (95%) and waste substances (5%). The urine leaves the kidneys and passes through the ureters, two tubes which go to the bladder.
The urine accumulates there until it is expelled through the urethra.

- The sweat glands in the skin also help in excretion. They make sweat.

ACTIVITY 1

JOIN THE CORRECT HALVES AND THEN WRITE THE SENTENCES

1.First the air                                         a. air leaves the lungs.
2.Then it                                                b. tiny sacs of air.
3.Next it                                                c. enters through the nose.
4.In the lungs                                         d. oxygen passes into the blood.
5.Alveoli are                                          e. our lungs fill with air.
6.In the alveoli                                       f. the bronchi divide into smaller bronchioles.
7.When we inhale                                  g. passes through the trachea.                       
8. When we exhale                                h. goes through the two main bronchi into
                                                                 each lung.

[spam] The teeth

This is a teeth.
Juan Carlos

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

We need to eat. Food give us the energy which we require for our daily activities. It also gives us the substances which we need to grow.

The digestive system converts the food we eat into nutrients which our body can absorb. It carries out three important functions: digestion, absorption and the elimination of waste.

DIGESTION

The digestion :

- First, food is chewed in the mouth, and mixed with saliva produced by the salivary glands. Gradually, a mass of chewed, soft food is formed.

- Then, this food moves down the pharynx and the oesophagus, and passes into the stomach.

- Next, it mixes with gastric juices in the stomach. This produces a thick liquid called chyme.

- Finally, the chyme leaves the stomach and reaches the small intestine. It mixes with juices from the intestine, the pancreas and the liver. All the substances which we require have now been separated.

ABSORPTION

In the small intestine, the substances which we need are absorbed into the blood.

ELIMINATION OF WASTE

The chyle loses its nutritional value as it passes through the small intestine. Only undigested substances, like fibre, remain and move to the large intestine.

The large intestine removes water from these substances, and forms solid waste called faeces.

This is expelled through the anus.

NUTRIENTS

Nutrients are the substances which our body needs to survive, grow and repair itself. Nutrients also give us energy.

-Carbohydrates give us energy. There afre two types of carbohydrate. Sugars are in foods which taste sweet. Starches are in bread, potatoes and legumes.

- Fats also give us energy. We get some fats, such as butter, from animals. We get other fats, such us olive oil, from plants.

-Proteins help our body to grow and repair itself. Meat, fish and legumes are good sources of protein.

OTHER NUTRITIVE SUBSTANCES

- VITAMINS AND MINERALS are essential for our bodies to function well. Fruits and vegetables are good sources, but minerals and vitamins are also found in other foods. Milk gives us calcium for our bones.

- WATER. Most of our body is made up of water, so it is essential. We drink water, and our body also obtains water from food.

- FIBRE helps food to move through the digestive system. It is found in fruits, vegetables and whole-grains.

NUTRITION

DIET

The food which someone normally eats over a period of time is called their diet. For good, healthy nutrition, our diet must be complete and balanced.

- A complete diet includes nutrients from all the food groups.

- A balanced diet includes the right amount of each nutrient.

THE ROMAN CONQUEST

In 218 A.D. the Romans defeated the Carthaginians in a war for the control of the Mediterranean sea. However, the Romans did not complete their conquest of the Iberian Peninsula until 19 B.C. because of resistance from peoples in the interior, north and west.

ROMAN RULE

The peninsula became part of the Roman Empire and was now called Hispania. Its inhabitants gradually adopted Roman customs, and they were ruled by Roman law.

They spoke Latin, the language of the Romans. Later, They became Christians.

The governor of Hispania was a Roman. He was responsible for keeping order and collecting taxes. Iberian leaders joined the Roman aristocratic class, and participated in government.

THE END OF ROMAN RULE

After many centuries of Roman rule, Rome began to lose power in Hispania. After about 400 A.D., germanic tribes from central and northern Europe invaded Hispania and conquered more territory. The Romans lost control of the peninsula.

ARCHITECTURE, TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

The Romans constructed many types of buildings:

- Theatres, circuses, amphitheatres and thermal baths were built for people´s entertainment.

- Thriumphal arches and columns were built to commemorate important events, such as victory in battle.

- Ports, bridges and aqueducts were built to improve life in the cities.

The Romans also built stone roads between cities on the peninsula and between Hispania and other parts of the Empire.

ACTIVITY ROMAN HISPANIA

Match the two halves of each sentence:

1. In 218 the Romans                           a.many types of buildings.
2. The inhabitants of Hispania               b.defeated the Carthaginians.
3. The governor of Hispania                 c.lost control of the peninsula.
4. After about 400 A.D.the Romans     d.roads between cities.
5. The Romans built                              e.was a Roman
6. They also built stone                          f.spoke Latin

THE IBERIANS AND THE CELTS

In pre-Roman times, two main groups of tribes inhabited the peninsula:

-The Iberians lived in the east and south of Spain. They were warriors, herders, farmers, craftsmen, merchants and slaves.

-The Celts entered Spain from the north, and generally settled in the north and centre of Spain. Their tribes were divided into family clans. They were herders and farmers. They were also expert metalworkers, who made jewellery, weapons and tools.

The Celts mixed with the Iberians to form the Celtiberians.

THE TARTESSIANS

The kingdom of Tartessus was in southern Spain in the Guadalquivir valley, and was rich in metals such as gold, silver and copper.

The Tartessians were great travellers, expert metalworkers and salt producers.

EARLY COLONIST

The Phoenicians were traders from Asia. They settled on the south coast. In 1100 B.C. they founded Gades (now Cadiz), the oldest city in Western Europe. They became important trading partners of the Tartessians.

The Greeks settled on the Mediterranean coast. They came to trade ceramic objects for metals. They founded the cities of Denia and Ampurias.

The Carthaginians came from North Africa to trade metals and cloth. They also settled on the Mediterranean coast and founded the city of Cartagena.

These colonising civilisations lived and trated with the Celtiberians for centuries. They left cultural legacies, such as the alphabet and metal coins.

ACTIVITY PRE-ROMAN TIMES

READ THE DEFINITIONS AND WRITE THE CORRESPONDING WORDS.

1.-The tribe which lived in the east and south of Spain:...................
2.-The tribe which lived in the north and centre of Spain:...................
3.-The tribe which lived in the Guadalquivir valley:...........................
4.-They were traders from Asia:.............................
5.-They were the founders of Denia and Ampurias:.....................,
6.-They were traders who came from North Africa:...........................

THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD

About a million years ago, Spain was inhabitated by hominids, or early human beings. Modern people appeared in Spain about 35.000 years ago.

They were nomads, and moved from place to place.

They lived in caves or huts. They obtained their food by hunting, fishing and gathering wild plants.

People lived in family groups, called clans. They lived short lives, and many babies died at birth.

THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD

Later, the population of the peninsula and the Balearic Islands became sedentary.

They built the first settlements.

People lived in tribes, which were larger than clans. Each tribe member had a specific job,such as cultivating the land, looking after the animals or making tools and weapons.

THE METAL AGES

About six thousand years ago, people learned to use metals. First, they used copper and, later, bronze and iron, which were more resistant.

Settlements became villages, which were surrounded by walls for protection.

Every village was run by a chieftain.

PREHISTORIC HERITAGE

Prehistoric people were the first to:

- Use fires to cook their food and protect themselves from the cold.

- Make clay pots.

- Use animal hair and looms to make cloth.

-Create art forms, such as cave paintings.

ACTIVITY PREHISTORY AND ANTIQUITY

 Complete these sentences.

fires/ modern/ pots/ settlements/ hominids/ clans/ caves/ villages

1.About a million years ago Spain was inhabitated by ...
2.About 35.000 years ago..................people appeared.
3.They lived in .............or huts.
4.People lived in family groups called....
5.Later the population became sedentary and they built the first ....
6.These settlements later became.............and were surrounded by walls.
7.Prehistoric people used.............to cook their food and made clay ......

ATLANTIC CLIMATE

On the Cantabrian coast and in Galicia, summers are cool and winters are mild. Rainfall is abundant all year round.

These areas have abundant flora, with many forests and meadows. Foxes, wolves, wild boar and deer are the most common fauna.

MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE

There are three types of Mediterranean climate.

- Continental: on the Central Plateau, in the Ebro valley and in part of Andalusia. The summers are hot and the winters are cold. Rainfall is light.

- Dry: in the southeast of mainland Spain. Temperatures are mild all year round. Rainfall is light, especially in summer.

-Typical: in coastal areas. Temperatures are mild in winter and hot in summer. Rainfall is irregular, with most rain in autumn.

Holm oaks, pines and shrubs grow in these climates. Lynx, partridges and rabbits are the most common fauna.

SUBTROPICAL CLIMATE

In the Canary Islands, temperatures are mild all year. Rainfall is low and occurs mainly in winter.

The flora includes dragon trees and tabaiba spurge. The fauna includes giant lizards and canaries.

MOUNTAIN CLIMATE

In the highest mountain areas, winters are very cold, but summers are mild. It rains and snows a lot.

There are meadows and forest with fir trees.The fauna includes vultures and goats.

RIVERS AND LAKES

Most rivers in Spain are short with relatively low flows because there is little precipitation. The longest rivers are the Ebro and the Tagus. There are no rivers on the Balearic and Canary Islands. However, torrents form there after heavy rain. There are many reservoirs, lagoons and lakes in Spain, such as Lake Sanabria in the Leon Mountains.

WATERSHEDS

There are three watersheds in Spain:

- The Atlantic watershed carries water from the rivers which flow into the Atlantic Ocean. The Galician rivers are short with high flows due to abundant rain. The plateau rivers are long with high flows too. However, the flows are lower in the summer when there is little rainfall. Atlantic rivers in Andalusia are long with irregular flows.

- The Cantabrian watershed carries water from the rivers which flow into the Cantabrian Sea. It has short rivers. Their flow is abundant and regular because they go through areas with ample rainfall.

- The Mediterranean watershed carries water from the rivers which flow into the Mediterranean Sea. It occupies a third of Spain. It does not have many rivers. They are short with low, irregular flows.

RIVER BASINS

The two principal river basins are:

-The Ebro river basin in the north-east. The river flows through it from west to east.

-The Guadalquivir river basin in the south. The river flows through it from east to west.

TRUE OR FALSE?????

1.The river Ebro is one of the longest in Spain.
2. The Ebro flows from east to west.
3. There are many rivers on the Balearic Islands.
4.The Mediterranean watershed occupies a third of Spain.
5. The Galician rivers are long with low flows.

THE ATLANTIC COAST

The Atlantic coast extends into three regions of Spain: Galicia, part of Andalusia, and the Canary Islands.

-The Galician coast is high, rocky and irregular with many estuaries.

-The Andalusian coast is low and sandy.

-The coasts of the Canary Islands are generally high with cliffs. Some islands, such as Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, have long beaches.

THE CANTABRIAN COAST

The Cantabrian coast is generally high and rocky with many cliffs and estuaries.

THE MEDITERRANEAN COAST

The Mediterranean coast is Spain´s longest coast. It extends from the French border in Catalonia to the Strait of Gibraltar in Andalusia.

The Mediterranean coast generally has low, sandy beaches.

The Balearic Islands are also in the Mediterranean. Their coasts are generally high and rocky, but there are also some long beaches.

ACTIVITY "COASTS"

Choose the correct alternative in each of these sentences.

-The Galician/Andalusian coast is high and rocky with many estuaries.
-The Galician/Andalucian coast is low and sandy.
-Lanzarote has long cliffs/beaches.
-The Mediterranean coast is Spain´s longest/ shortest coast.
-The Balearic Islands generally have high and rocky/ low and sandy coasts.

PHYSICAL MAP OF SPAIN

LOOK AT THIS PHYSICAL MAP OF SPAIN

THE CENTRAL PLATEAU

The Central Plateau has two parts, the northern area and the southern area. It is divided by the Central Mountain Chain.

MOUNTAIN LANSCAPES

The most important mountain ranges are:

- The Pyrenees, in the north.

-The Betic Chain,in the south-east.

-The Cantabrian Chain, in the north-west.

-The Iberian Chain, north-east of the Central Plateau.

DEPRESSIONS

There are two large depressions around the Ebro and Guadalquivir river basins.

ISLAND LANDSCAPES

The Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, are volcanic and very mountainous.

The Balearic Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea, are not very mountainous.

ACTIVITY "THE LANDSCAPE"

COMPLETE THESE SENTENCES

1. The Central Plateau is divided by the ...
2. The Pyrenees are in the ...
3. The Betic Chain is in the ...
4. The Cantabrian Chain is in the ...
5. The Iberian Chain is in the .......of the Central Plateau.
6. The ... are very mountainous.
7. The ... are not very mountainous.

CASING AND STRUCTURE

The casing is the outer part of a machine.It protects the machine from dust, moisture and damage. The structure is the frame of the machine, and it supports the weight.

OPERATING PARTS AND MECHANISMS

The operating parts are the components of a machine, such as wheels, axles, springs and chains.

A mechanism is a group of operating parts which work together to perform a specific task.For example, on a bicycle, the gears and chain form a mechanism.

ENGINES AND MOTORS

An engine or a motor is the part of a machine which produces movement.

-Combustion engines use chemical energy from fuel. Cars and aeroplanes have combustion engines.

-Electric motors use electrical energy. Electric machines, such as trains or cameras, have electric motors.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND ELECTRONICS

Machines which use an electrical current have electrical circuits.

-Electronic circuits are electrical circuits with very small components.

-Microchips, the smallest circuits, have tiny electronic circuits. Microchips are used in digital cameras, telephones and many other electronic devices.

ACTIVITY "INSIDE A MACHINE"

READ THESE DEFINITIONS AND WRITE THE CORRESPONDING WORDS.

1. The outer part of a machine.
2. The frame of the machine which supports the weight.
3. The components of a machine, for example, wheels,axles,etc.
4. A group of operating parts which act together to perform a specific task.
5. Engines which use chemical energy from fuel.
6. Components which have tiny electronic circuits and are used in digital cameras, telephones,etc.

MACHINES

Machines are devices which use the action of a force or convert one type of energy into another. For exemple, a bicycle is a machine which transforms human energy into mechanical energy.

Machines save us time and physical effort.

TYPES OF MACHINES

Some machines, such as pulleys, are very simple because they have very few components. Other machines, such as computers, are complex because they have many components.

Machines can be classified depending on the energy source. There are machines which work with:

-Human energy, such as a bicycle or a hammer.
-Water or wind, such as watermill or windmill.
- Fuel, such as a car or a gas stove.
-Electricity, such as a washing machine or a mobile phone.

MACHINES WHICH PRODUCE MOVEMENT

Many machines produce movement, such as escalators, cars or food blenders. These machines have a motor or an engine. The motor converts fuel or electrical energy into movement.

THERMAL MACHINES

Thermal machines, such as heaters and air conditioners, produce heat or cold.

INFORMATION-PROCESSING MACHINES

Information-processing machines are used for communication and calculations. For exemple, we can communicate with others using mobile phones, and we can make calculations on computers.

ACTIVITY MACHINES

READ THESE SENTENCES AND CORRECT THE WRONG INFORMATION.

1. A bicycle is a machine which transforms mechanical energy into human energy.
2. Pulleys have many components.
3. A hammer works with wind energy.
4. A washing machine works with fuel.
5. Computers are simple machines.

FORCES AND DISTORTIONS

Forces can distort some objects temporaly or permanently.

Elastic objects, such as a spring, return to their original shape when the force stops acting upon them. They are distorted temporaly.

Non-elastic objects, such as a piece of plasticine, remain permanently distorted when the force has stopped.

FORCES AND MOTION

Forces can affect motion in many different ways. They can:

-Make something move:for exemple, when you open a door, you push or pull to move the door.
-Stop a moving body:for example, when a basketball player catches a ball, the ball stops.
-Change the direction of a moving object: for exemple, when a tennis player hits a ball, it goes to the other side of the court.
-Increase the speed of a moving body: for exemple, the force a skateboarder uses to push the skateboard makes it go faster.
-Reduce the speed of a moving body:when the skateboarder puts both feet on the skateboard, the wheels rub against the ground and friction makes the skateboard go more slowly.

ACTIVITY FORCES AND MOTION

MATCH THE TWO HALVES OF EACH SENTENCE

1.Elastic objects                                            a.make something move.
2.Non-elastic objects                                    b.it stops.
3.Forces can                                                 c.are distorted temporaly
                                                                        by force.
4.When a tennis player hits a ball                   d.are permanently distorted
                                                                        by force
5.When a basketball player catches a ball      e.it changes direction.

FORCES

Forces are actions which make objects move, stop or change shape. They can be a push or a pull.

When you throw a ball, it moves. The movement is caused by the force you applied to the ball.

TYPES OF FORCES

There are different types of forces.
- GRAVITY. This force makes objects fall to the ground. If we throw an object into the air, gravity pulls it to the ground.

-ELECTRIC FORCE.This force is found between electrically charged objects. Electric force can attract or repel.

-MAGNETIC FORCE.This force affects magnets and some metallic objects. Magnetic force can attract or repel.

-FRICTION.When an object touches another object, it experiences a frictional force. This force acts in the direction opposite to the direction of movement. It slows or stops moving objects. For example, friction between a ball and the ground stops the ball rolling after a few metres.

ACTIVITY FORCES

Answer these questions:
1. What two forces can attract or repel?
2. What force makes objects fall to the ground?
3. Which force acts in the direction opposite to the direction of movement?

ACTIVITY MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM

1.An object which can attract other objects made of iron or mixtures of iron is called a ...
2. When the opposite poles of two magnets are placed together they...
3. When the same poles of two magnets are placed together they ...
4. The area around a magnet affected by magnetic forces is called a ...
5. A conducting wire wrapped around a piece of iron which acts as a magnet when an electrical current flows through the wire is called an ...

MAGNETS

A MAGNET is an object which can attract objects made of iron or mixtures of iron, such as steel. This attraction is called magnetism.

Magnets can be natural, such as the mineral magnetite, or artificial, such as magnets manufactured from metal.

Magnets have two poles: north and south. When the opposite poles of two magnets are placed together, the magnets attract each other. If the same poles are placed together, the magnets repel each other.

MAGNETIC FIELDS

Magnets create magnetic fields. They are the space around a magnet where materials, such as iron filings, are affected by magnetic forces.

ELECTROMAGNETS

An electromagnet is a conducting wire wrapped around a piece of iron, called a coil, which acts as a magnet when electrical current flows through it.

THE USES OF MAGNETS

Magnets are used in electric motors and generators for telephones, lights, televisions, computers and more.

- Magnetic recording media are used in audio cassettes, floppy disks and hard disk to store information in a very small space.

- Magnetic strips store information on credit cards.

- Electromagnets are used in televisions, computer monitors, loudspeakers and microphones.

ACTIVITY MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM

david
1 An object which can attract other objects made of iron or mixtures of iron is called magnet
2 When the opposite poles of two magnets are placed together they atrack
3 When the same poles of two magnets are placed together they repel is other
4 The area around a magnet affected by magnetic forces is called a magnetic fields
5 A conducting wire wrapped around a piece of iron which acts as a magnet when an electrical current flows through the wire is called an electro magnet
son pedos en la playa

his fards in the beach

ELECTRICAL CURRENT

Electrical current is the flow of electrical charges. It transmits energy called electricity.

Electrical current flows differently, depending on the type of material through which it flows.

-Conductors:electrical current flows easily through conductors. Most metals are conductors.

-Insulators: electrical current does not flow easily through insulators, such as air, glass, plastic, wood and rubber.

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

An electric circuit consist of different components connected to each other to allow the flow of an electrical current.

The four basic components of an electric circuit are:
- A generator, which is the source of electricity, such as an electrical plant or a battery.
-An electrical component, such as a light bulb or a motor.
- Conducting wires.
- A switch to control the flow of electrical current. a switch in the on position closes the circuit and allows the flow of electrical current. A switch in the off position opens the circuit and breaks the flow of electrical current.

ACTIVITY TRUE OR FALSE?

DECIDE IF THEY ARE TRUE OR FALSE, AND CORRECT THEM IF NECESSARY

1.Electrical current flows easily through conductors.
2.Rubber is a conductor.
3.Electrical current does not flow easily through insulators.
4.Most metals are insulators.
5.An electric circuit has four basic components.
6.When the switch is on, it opens the electric circuit.

ELECTRICAL CHARGES

There are two types of electrical charge: positive and negative. Negative charges can move from one place or object to another.

-If an object has more positive than negative charges, it is positively charged.
-If an object has more negative than positive charges, it is negatively charged.
-If an object has the same number of positive and negative charges, it is neutral.


Objects with opposite charges attract each other, and objects with the same charges repel each other.

If we rub an object with something made from a different material, we make electrical charges move, creating static electricity.


For example, if you rub a balloon onto your hair, negative charges move from tour hair onto the balloon. Your hair becomes positively charged and the balloon becomes negatively charged. You can stick the balloon to your hair, and your hair stands on end.

ACTIVITY ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

COMPLETE THESE SENTENCES WITH THE CORRECT WORDS.

1. There are two types of electrical charges.
2. Negative charges can move from one place or object to another.
3. An object with the same number of positive and negative charges is neutral
4. Objects with opposite charges atract each other.
5. Objects with the same charges repel each other.